Expert System Industry In China

The expert system industry in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI development started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms stressing science and technology as the country’s primary efficient force.

The preliminary phases of China’s AI advancement were slow and experienced substantial difficulties due to absence of resources and talent. At the beginning China lagged the majority of Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research study was led by scientists who had actually received college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has progressively developed a national program for expert system advancement and emerged as among the leading nations in expert system research study and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it intended to end up being a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI groups” consisting of fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each company ought to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s fast AI advancement has actually considerably affected Chinese society in lots of locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and production are the top industries that would be the most affected by further AI implementation.

The economic sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in lots of aspects as there are couple of present existing limits. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law resolving AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade restrictions intended to restrict China’s access to sophisticated computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship program on the development of generative artificial intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and advancement of expert system in China started in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and innovation for China’s economic development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research study and advancement did not start up until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists launched AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was hard so China’s government approached these difficulties by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further offering federal government funds for research jobs. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s very first research publication on expert system was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have actually belonged to China’s nationwide technology strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has actually further broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research jobs has actually dramatically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy top priority for the advancement of artificial intelligence, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, artificial intelligence was also discussed in the eleventh five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of artificial intelligence. The first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion coincided with the Chinese government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable milestone in China’s advancement of synthetic intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the development of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the plan described AI as a tactical innovation that has actually become a “focus of worldwide competitors”. [14]:2 The document urged significant financial investment in a number of strategic areas connected to AI and required close cooperation between the state and private sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between financial and military ends is a vital component to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The very same year witnessed the introduction of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council mentioned the requirement for massive talent acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, as well as public and private financial investments. [14] A few of the stated inspirations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI technique consist of the potential of artificial intelligence for commercial transformation, better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] As of the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies across fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research study. With the emergence of big language designs (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system released China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively issued the regulations worrying deepfakes, which ended up being efficient in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on basic generative AI services safety requirements, consisting of specifications for information collection and model training was released in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and intends to build AI policy discussion with establishing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually expressed issue over AI safety threats, including abuse of data or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began using news anchors developed with generative expert system to deliver fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which means to incorporate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in profits over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The fourth and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by financiers as China’s new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been authorized by the Chinese federal government. [33]

As of 2024, many Chinese technology firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have introduced AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be vital to the future of global military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make basic contributions to standard AI theory and to strengthen its location as an international leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council intends for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s commercial updating and financial transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the global leader in the development of synthetic intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “seeks to meld state planning and control while some operational versatility for companies. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competitors through domestic market defenses, creating uneven advantages as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy declared AI as a top research concern and ranks AI first among “frontier markets” that the Chinese government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s federal government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI funding primarily concentrated on innovative and applied research study. [38] The federal government financing also supported several AI R&D in the economic sector through endeavor capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study showed that, while China is enormously buying all elements of AI development, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous automobiles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to national guidance on establishing China’s state-of-the-art commercial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as a speculative advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in experimental areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and local commercial development and environment. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, heavily concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI applications and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competition for computer system vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play an essential role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate partnership, public-private collaborations, and global partnerships and tasks with corporate-government partnerships are the most common. [1] China ranked in the leading three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had actually finished their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and imposing obligations on AI companies, the general method to its guideline is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population generates an enormous amount of available information for business and researchers, which offers a vital benefit in the race of huge information. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest number of internet users, producing big amounts of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial recognition is one of the most commonly utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of data from its residents helps additional train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not only favorable and important for corporations to more AI R&D however likewise provides tremendous economic prospective drawing in both worldwide and domestic companies to sign up with the AI market. The drastic advancement of the details and interaction innovation (ICT) industry and AI chipsets over the last few years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft procedures mentioning that tech companies will be bound to make sure AI-generated material promotes the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, respects copyright rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal obligation for training information and content produced through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced material may not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a large language design to the general public, business need to seek approval from the CAC to accredit that the design refuses to respond to particular concerns relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically delicate topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that keeps libraries consisting of training information sets typically utilized for large language models. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers local business with training data that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has alerted that the Chinese government uses generative artificial intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has been reported to decline to answer concerns associating with things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most agencies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-term economic growth. In the past, traditional industries in China have actually dealt with the increase in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, operational expenses are anticipated to lower while a boost in efficiency produces income development. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of effectively trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most negatively affected by China’s AI advancement due to the fact that of increasing demands for workers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth may be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related industrial advancement is focused in seaside regions instead of inland. [61]

A prominent choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military effect

China looks for to develop a “world-class” armed force by “intelligentization” with a specific focus on using unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is researching different types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous automobiles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report released afterwards showed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and ruining a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mostly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. strategies for defense innovation and fears of an expanding “generational space” in comparison to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China intends to utilize AI for making use of large troves of intelligence, generating a common operating image, and speeding up battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have actually been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, choice assistance, software, automated rocket launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI community contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, few limits exist in between Chinese business companies, university research laboratories, the military, and the central federal government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct methods of directing AI development concerns and accessing innovation that was ostensibly developed for civilian functions. To even more enhance these ties the Chinese federal government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI innovation from industrial companies and research institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of data labeling to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the possible to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily relevant AI applications, potentially giving it lawful access to U.S. technology and intellectual residential or commercial property. [69] Chinese endeavor capital investment in U.S. AI companies between 2010 and 2017 totaled an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “particularly those from competitor or adversarial nations,” from buying U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. national security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has been investing, including “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually developed a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its design use restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, particularly since China deals with obstacles in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have actually been operating in the field for over 10 years, while roughly the very same proportion of information scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research study items. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the number of research papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China specifically desire to address military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently developed the very first kids’s academic program in military AI in the world. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the previous years, there are discussions about AI safety and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first nationwide ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific focus on user security, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adaptation by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings shall remain in full decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system released the Beijing AI principles calling for necessary needs in long-lasting research and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most typical subject in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and many national governments have actually developed legislation dealing with data privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to address new difficulties raised by AI advancement. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative structure categorizing all type of information collection and storage in China. [81] This indicates all tech business in China are required to categorize their information into categories listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and handle information transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes related to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI examines the evidence presented and uses pertinent legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach objective choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, writes that AI-technology companies might erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate objectives of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have gotten attention for facial recognition, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented approach to AI, and has actually looked for to motivate personal tech business in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language model Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been promoted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to worldwide AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally embedded reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards securing a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed both commercial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to take advantage of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

An article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities demonstrated remarkably keen understanding of the issues surrounding AI and worldwide security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to similarly focus on cultivating expertise and understanding of AI developments in China” and “financing, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale required modification.” [35] A short article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China may have unequaled resources and enormous untapped capacity, but the West has world-leading competence and a strong research culture. Instead of worry about China’s progress, it would be sensible for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship program has stunted the development of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI develops challenges for holistic nationwide security, including the threats that AI will increase social stress or have destabilizing impacts on worldwide relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher injustice of employees and more serious social problems. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to higher capital accumulation and political power in less economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the primary responsible actor in the location of generative AI (developing brand-new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI risks escalating military competition in between countries which the impact of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one country however will have spillover impacts. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential threat from expert system have taken place. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is normally optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study conducted throughout 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI surpass the risks, the highest of any nation in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university trainees found that 80% agreed or highly agreed that AI will do more great than damage for society, and 31% believed it should be controlled by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively used AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, implementation of AI facial recognition technology in the Xinjiang region to discover Uyghurs is “the very first known example of a federal government intentionally using expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, locations experiencing higher rates of unrest are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, specifically by regional community police departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of synthetic intelligence companies
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.